Early forms of exclusion

Sinti and Roma have been mentioned in documents in almost every country of Europe since the early 15^th century. Initially, the minority enjoyed the protection of German kings and sovereign princes. But in the late 15^th century, late-medieval society under­went a phase of political and social upheaval as it transitioned to the early modern era, and the Sinti and Roma became increasingly marginalised and persecuted in the process. In 1498 the Reichstag meeting in Freiburg declared ‘gypsies’ to be ‘vogelfrei’, i.e. ‘free game’ or outlaws, as they were accused of being spies for Turkey. This meant they could be killed with impunity.

Despite a policy of displacement and expulsion that was strictly enforced by the sovereigns of newly established territorial states, the Sinti and Roma found ways of surviving and spotted economic niches. Social and economic relations of many kinds were estab­lished between minority and majority society. Individual members of the minority succeeded in rising up the ranks of the military or sovereign public policy (Policey), even attaining officer ranks. But the emergence of a nationalism predicated on völkisch or ethnic aspects meant that such opportunities for advancement were slowly but surely closed off.